Wednesday 26 June 2013

Basil

Basil

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Basil (disambiguation).
"Selasih" redirects here. For the Indonesian author, see Sariamin Ismail.
This article contains Chinesetext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Chinese characters.
Basil
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Asterids
Order:Lamiales
Family:Lamiaceae
Genus:Ocimum
Species:O. basilicum
Binomial name
Ocimum basilicum
L.
Basil, or Sweet Basil, is a common name for the culinary herb Ocimum basilicum (pronounced /ˈbæzɪl/ or, in the US, /ˈbeːzɪl/), of the familyLamiaceae (mints), sometimes known as Saint Joseph's Wort in some English-speaking countries.
Basil, originally from India,[1] but thoroughly familiar to Theophrastus[2] and Dioscurides, is a half-hardy annual plant, best known as a culinary herb prominently featured in Italian cuisine, and also plays a major role in Southeast Asian cuisines of Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and the cuisine of Taiwan. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, often sweet smell.
There are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is typically called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora), lemon basil (O. X citriodorum) and holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), which are used in Asia. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil and a cultivar known as 'African Blue'.
Basil is originally native to India and other tropical regions of Asia, having been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years.[3]

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Etymology[edit]

The word basil comes from the Greek βασιλεύς (basileus), meaning "king",[4] as it has come to be associated with the Feast of the Cross commemorating the finding of the True Cross by St Helena mother of the emperor St. Constantine.[5] Alternatively the herbalist John Gerard noted of basil that those stung by scorpions would feel no pain if they ate of basil.[6] and Nicholas Culpepernotes of basil that it is "an herb of Mars and under the Scorpion, and therefore called Basilicon",[7] relating it to basilisk. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in "some royal unguent, bath, or medicine". Basil is still considered the "king of herbs" by many cookery authors.[8]

Nomenclature and taxonomy[edit]

Most commercially available basils are cultivars of sweet basil. There are over 160 named cultivars available and more new ones every year. There are also a number of species sold. Here are some basils commonly sold in the USA.[3]
For a more complete list, see List of basil cultivars

Similar species[edit]

Culinary use[edit]

Dried basil leaves
Basil, fresh
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy94 kJ (22 kcal)
Carbohydrates2.65 g
- Dietary fiber1.6 g
Fat0.64 g
Protein3.15 g
Water92.06 g
Vitamin A equiv.264 μg (33%)
- beta-carotene3142 μg (29%)
Thiamine (vit. B1)0.034 mg (3%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)0.076 mg (6%)
Niacin (vit. B3)0.902 mg (6%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)0.209 mg (4%)
Vitamin B60.155 mg (12%)
Folate (vit. B9)68 μg (17%)
Choline11.4 mg (2%)
Vitamin C18.0 mg (22%)
Vitamin E0.80 mg (5%)
Vitamin K414.8 μg (395%)
Calcium177 mg (18%)
Iron3.17 mg (24%)
Magnesium64 mg (18%)
Manganese1.148 mg (55%)
Phosphorus56 mg (8%)
Potassium295 mg (6%)
Sodium4 mg (0%)
Zinc0.81 mg (9%)
Percentages are relative to
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Basil is commonly used fresh in cooked recipes. In general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, like hay.
Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. Its other main ingredients are olive oil, garlic, and pine nuts.
The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". The Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups (Chinese: 羹湯;pinyin: gēngtāng). They also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil (most commonly Thai basil) is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create an interesting flavor in ice cream or chocolates (such as truffles). The leaves are not the only part of basil used in culinary applications, the flower buds have a more subtle flavor and they are edible.
Thai basil is also a condiment in the Vietnamese noodle soup, phở.

Basil seeds[edit]

When soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as faluda, sherbet orhột é.

Folk Use[edit]

Basil is used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda, the traditional medicinal system of India and Siddha medicine, a traditional Tamil system of medicine. They are also used as drinks in Southeast Asia.

Other basils[edit]

See List of basil cultivars
Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavor that is, in general, stronger than the Mediterranean basils. The most notable is the holy basil or tulsi, a revered home-grown plant in India and Nepal. InChina, the local cultivar is called (Chinese: 九層塔; pinyin: jiǔ céng tǎ; literally "nine-level pagoda"), while the imported varieties are called (Chinese: 羅勒; pinyin: luó lè) or (Chinese: 巴西里; pinyin: bā xī lǐ), although [巴西里] often refers to a different plant—parsley.
Lemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavor very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, when broken up, are a zesty salad condiment.

Chemical components[edit]

Basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oil in a clear glass vial
The various basils have such different scents because the herb has a number of different essential oils that come together in different proportions for various breeds. The strong clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol, the same chemical as actual cloves.[citation needed] The citrus scent of lemon basil and lime basil reflects their higher portion of citral, which causes this effect in several plants including lemon mint, and of limonene, which gives actual lemon peel its scent. African blue basil has a strong camphor smell because it contains camphor and camphene in higher proportions. Licorice basil contains anethole, the same chemical that makes anise smell like licorice, and in fact is sometimes called "anise basil."
Other chemicals that help to produce the distinctive scents of many basils, depending on their proportion in each specific breed, include:[citation needed]
Based on chemical content, basils can be divided into four groups:
  1. French; Ocimum basilicum, contains lower amounts of phenols
  2. exotic; contains methyl chavicol (40-80%)
  3. methyl cinnamate - ether 90%
  4. eugenol
Basil and oregano contain large amounts of (E)-beta-caryophyllene (BCP), which might have a use in treating inflammatory bowel diseases and arthritis. BCP is the only product identified in nature that activates CB2 selectively; it interacts with one of two cannabinoid receptors (CB2), blocking chemical signals that lead to inflammation, without triggering cannabis's mood-altering effects.[12]
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Alligator pepper

Alligator pepper

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alligator Pepper Fruit and Seeds
Alligator pepper (also known as mbongo spice, hepper pepper) is a North African spice which corresponds to the seeds and seed pods ofAframomum danielli, Aframomum citratum or Aframomum exscapum. It is a close relative of grains of paradise, obtained from the closely related species, Aframomum melegueta. However, unlike grains of paradise which are generally sold as only the seeds of the plant, Alligator pepper is sold as the entire pod containing the seeds (in the same manner to another close relative, black cardamom).
The plants which provide alligator pepper are herbaceous perennials of the ginger (Zingiberaceae) family of flowering plants that are native to swampy habitats along the West African coast. Once the pod is open and the seeds are revealed the reason for this spice's common English name becomes apparent as the seeds have a papery skin enclosing them and the bumps of the seeds within this skin is reminiscent of an alligator's back.
As mbongo spice the seeds of alligator pepper is often sold as the grains themselves, isolated from the pod and with the outer skin removed. Mbongo spice is most commonly either Aframomum danielli or Aframomum citratum and has a more floral aroma than Aframomum exscapum (which is the commonest source of the entire pod).
It is a common ingredient in West African cuisine where it imparts both 'heat', 'pungency' and a spicy aroma to classic West African 'soups' (stews).

Use in cuisine[edit]

Even in West Africa, alligator pepper is an expensive spice and is used sparingly. Often a single whole pod is pounded in a pestle and mortar before half of it is added (along with black pepper) as a flavouring to West African 'soups' (stews) or to boiled rice. The spice can also be substituted in any recipe using grains of paradise or black cardamom to provide a hotter and more pungent flavour.

When a baby is born in Yoruba culture, they are given a small taste of alligator pepper shortly after birth as part of the routine baby welcoming process and it is also used as an ingredient at traditional meet-and-greets.
In Igbo land, alligator pepper with kola nuts are used in naming ceremonies, as presentation to visiting guests and for other social events.
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Thursday 20 June 2013

Aloe vera

Aloe vera

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Aloe vera
Aloe vera plant with flower detail inset.
Scientific classificatione
Kingdom:Plantae
Clade:Angiosperms
Clade:Monocots
Order:Asparagales
Family:Xanthorrhoeaceae
Subfamily:Asphodeloideae
Genus:Aloe
Species:A. vera
Binomial name
Aloe vera
(L.) Burm.f.
Aloe vera - MHNT
Aloe vera is a succulent plant species that probably originated in northern Africa. The species does not have any naturally occurring populations, although closely related aloes do occur in northern Africa.[1] The species is frequently cited as being used in herbal medicine since the beginning of the first century AD. Extracts from A. vera are widely used in the cosmetics and alternative medicine industries, being marketed as variously having rejuvenating, healing or soothing properties. There is, however, little scientific evidence of the effectiveness or safety of A. vera extracts for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes, and what positive evidence is available is frequently contradicted by other studies.[2][3][4][5]

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Description[edit]

Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm (24–39 in) tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some varieties showing white flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces.[6] The margin of the leaf isserrated and has small white teeth. The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower being pendulous, with a yellow tubular corolla 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.[6][7] Like other Aloe species, Aloe vera forms arbuscular mycorrhiza, a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil.[8]
Aloe vera leaves contain phytochemicals under study for possible bioactivity, such as acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones, anthraquinones, such as emodin, and various lectins.[4][9][10]

Taxonomy and etymology[edit]

Spotted forms of Aloe vera are sometimes known as Aloe vera var.chinensis.
The species has a number of synonyms: A. barbadensis Mill., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam.[11][12] Common names include Chinese Aloe, Indian Aloe, True Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Burn Aloe, First Aid Plant.[7][13][14][15][16] The species epithet vera means "true" or "genuine".[13] Some literature identifies the white spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis;[17][18] however, the species varies widely with regard to leaf spots[1] and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe vera may be conspecific with A. massawana.[19] The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera,[20] and was described again in 1768 by Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on 6 April and by Philip Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener's Dictionary.[21]
Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest that Aloe vera is relatively closely related to Aloe perryi, a species that is endemic to Yemen.[22]Similar techniques, using chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested that Aloe vera is closely related to Aloe forbesii,Aloe inermis, Aloe scobinifolia, Aloe sinkatana, and Aloe striata.[23] With the exception of the South African species A. striata, these Aloe species are native to Socotra (Yemen), Somalia, and Sudan.[23] The lack of obvious natural populations of the species has led some authors to suggest that Aloe veramay be of hybrid origin.[24]

Distribution[edit]

The natural range of Aloe vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world. Naturalised stands of the species occur in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, through North Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Egypt) as well as Sudan and neighbouring countries, along with the Canary, Cape Verde, and Madeira Islands.[11] This distribution is somewhat similar to the one of Euphorbia balsamifera, Pistacia atlantica, and a few others, suggesting that a dry sclerophyl forest once covered large areas, but has been dramatically reduced due to desertification in the Sahara, leaving these few patches isolated. Several closely related (or sometimes identical) species can be found on the two extreme sides of the Sahara: Dragon trees(Dracaena) and Aeonium being two of the most representative examples.
The species was introduced to China and various parts of southern Europe in the 17th century.[25] The species is widely naturalised elsewhere, occurring in temperate and tropical regions of Australia, Barbados, Belize, Nigeria, Paraguay and the United States[1][26] It has been suggested that the actual species' distribution is the result of human cultivation.[19]

Cultivation[edit]

Aloe vera can be grown as an ornamental plant.
Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. The species is popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and due to its interesting flowers, form, and succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low-water use gardens.[6] The species is hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow.[7][27] The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though spider mites, mealy bugs, scale insects, and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health.[28][29] In pots, the species requires well-drained sandy potting soil and bright sunny conditions; however, aloe plants can burn under too much sun or shrivel when the pot does not drain the rain. The use of a good-quality commercial propagation mix or pre-packaged "cacti and succulent mix" is recommended, as they allow good drainage.[30] Terracotta pots are preferable as they are porous.[30] Potted plants should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. When potted aloes become crowded with "pups" growing from the sides of the "mother plant," they should be divided and re-potted to allow room for further growth and help prevent pest infestations. During winter, Aloe vera may become dormant, during which little moisture is required. In areas that receive frost or snow, the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.[7] Large scale agricultural production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia,[31] Bangladesh, Cuba,[32] the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico,[33] India,[34] Jamaica,[35] Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa,[36] along with the USA[37] to supply the cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.
Herbal Farming in Chhattisgarh: Aloe vera
Aloe vera gel being used to make a dessert.

Uses[edit]

Preparations made from the plant Aloe vera are often referred to as "aloe vera".[39] Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and therapeutic effectiveness of aloe vera is limited and when present is frequently contradictory.[2][3] Despite this, the cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturizing, and healing properties of aloe vera.[4][40] Aloe vera gel is used as an ingredient in commercially available lotions, yogurt, beverages, and some desserts,[41][42][43] although at certain doses, it has toxic properties when used either for ingested or topical applications.[44]

Folk medicine[edit]

Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from 16th century BC,[16] in both Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century AD[16] along with the Juliana Anicia Codex produced in 512 AD.[41] The species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of many countries.[4] Aloe vera, called kathalai in Ayurvedic medicine, is used as a multipurpose skin treatment. This may be partly due to the presence of saponin, a chemical compound that acts as an anti-microbial agent.[45]

Dietary supplement[edit]

Aloin, a compound found in the exudate of some Aloe species, was the common ingredient in over-the-counter (OTC) laxative products in the United States prior to 2003, when the Food and Drug Administration ruled that aloin was a class III ingredient, thereby banning its use.[46] Aloe vera has potential toxicity, with side-effects occurring at some dose levels both when ingested or applied topically.[44] Although toxicity may be less when aloin is removed by processing, aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts may induce side-effects.[4][5][47] A 2-year National Toxicology Program (NTP) study on oral consumption of non-decolorized whole leaf extract of Aloe vera found evidence of carcinogenic activity in male and female rats. The NTP says more information is needed to determine the potential risks to humans.[48][49][50]
Aloe vera juice is marketed to support the health of the digestive system, but there is neither scientific evidence nor regulatory approval to support this claim.[51] The extracts and quantities typically used for such purposes appear to be dose-dependent for toxic effects.[44]

Commodities[edit]

Aloe vera is now used on facial tissues, where it is promoted as a moisturiser and/or anti-irritant to reduce chafing of the nose of users suffering hay-fever or cold.[52] It is common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, shaving cream or shampoos.[41] Other uses for extracts of aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep,[53] as a fresh food preservative,[54] or for water conservation in small farms.[55] It has also been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds.[56] Aloe is also used as a food substance, possibly for its gelling properties (see image above).

Toxicity[edit]

In 2011 the National Toxicology Program carried out a series of short and long term carcinogenicity studies of a nondecolorized whole leaf extract of Aloe barbadensis miller (aloe vera) in rats and mice, in which the extracts were fed to the rodents in drinking water.[4] The studies found "clear evidence of carcinogenic activity" in the rats, but "no evidence of carcinogenic activity" in the mice. Both the mice and rats had increased amounts of non-cancerous lesions in various tissues. The NTP believes that further studies of oral preparations of aloe are important, as are studies of the oral exposure of humans to aloe; topical preparations are still considered safe.[4]
Oral ingestion of aloe vera may also cause diarrhea, which in turn can lead to electrolyte imbalance, kidney dysfunction, dry mouth, headache and nausea. While topical application may inducecontact dermatitis, erythema, or phototoxicity.[4][48]

Research into medical uses[edit]

Two 2009 reviews of clinical studies determined that all of them were too small and faulty to draw strong conclusions from, but concluded that "there is some preliminary evidence to suggest that oral administration of aloe vera might be effective in reducing blood glucose in diabetic patients and in lowering blood lipid levels in hyperlipidaemia. The topical application of aloe vera does not seem to prevent radiation-induced skin damage. It might be useful as a treatment for genital herpes and psoriasis. The evidence regarding wound healing is contradictory. More and better trial data are needed to define the clinical effectiveness of this popular herbal remedy more precisely." [5][57] One of the reviews found that aloe has not been proven to offer protection for humans from sunburn, suntan, or other damage from the sun.[57]
A 2007 review of aloe vera's use in burns concluded that "cumulative evidence tends to support that aloe vera might be an effective interventions used in burn wound healing for first to second degree burns. Further, well-designed trials with sufficient details of the contents of aloe vera products should be carried out to determine the effectiveness of aloe vera.[58] Topical application of aloe vera may also be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis.[5]
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